MCAE 106 Gastronomy Tourism
Objectives: Students able to gain the knowledge about Modern Gastronomy, Creativity in Gastronomy Tourism and gastronomy Tourism in India.
Unit-I: Modern Gastronomy: Definition & Gastronomy terminology that describes the nature of the ingredients,
Unit-II: Food, Culture and Power: Food, gender and space: articulations of imperial power, Food and ideology, Potential of Food Heritage in India, Food and Language,
Unit-III: Gastronomy Tourism in India: Gastronomy location in India, Food heritage and Tourism. Gastronomy Concept and Definition
Unit-IV: Segmentation Of Tourists According To Gastronomy: Food motivational dimensions, Gastronomy and satisfaction.
Unit-V: Exploring Creativity In Gastronomy: Creative Performance in Gastronomy, Gastronomy and Domain-relevant skills, Gastronomy and creativity-relevant skills, Gastronomy and task motivation, Artistic aspiration.
Unit-I
GASTRONOMY
The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines gastronomy as the art of selecting, preparing, serving, and enjoying fine food. The classical definition of gastronomy is that it is the study of good eating, (see seminal work by J.A. Brillat-Savarin [1826]. Physiologie du goût, ou Méditations de Gastronomie Transcendante. English translation by Fayette Robinson (2004), The Physiology of Taste or Transcendental Gastronomy), and is a corpus of knowledge with its roots in all major classical studies. “Culinaria” is a term which is often used synonymously with gastronomy, and it describes a country’s or region’s dishes, foods, and food preparation techniques, which give rise to the country’s or region’s distinctive cuisine. Hence, “Culinary Tourism,” was a term first suggested by Long (2003) in 1998, to expresses the idea of tourists’ experiencing other cultures through food. Wolf (2002) however, defined culinary and/or gastronomy tourism as travelling for the purpose of exploring and enjoying the destination’s food and beverage and to savour unique
and memorable gastronomy experiences. This definition finds support in an earlier research by Finkelstein (1989), Johns and Clarke (2001), and Kivela and Johns (2002) who suggest that feelings and memories make dining out when on holiday, very special and attractive, because
these become transposed into experiences that are often very personal (Finkelstein, 1989). In this context, one of the key functions of the destination’s foodservice industries is the provision of those experiences and feelings that individuals believe they should be having while on holiday or while travelling.
It is normal that we should experience pleasure as an essential part of a holiday experience, and dining out should be a pleasurable and memorable part of that experience. So much in fact, that gastronomy has played a pivotal role in the marketing of some tourist destinations. For example, some travel organisations (Intrepid Travel, 2004) regularly offer gourmet or gastronomy holidays to Asia, Italy, and France; holidays with cooking classes in Tuscany and Provence; Melbourne and Sydney in Australia are often marketed as the food and wine, and restaurant destinations. In this context, the Australian Tourist Commission–ATC was one of the first destination marketing organisations to make a commitment to gastronomy tourism as a matter of national tourism policy and planning. For tourists, this means that the destination’s restaurants’ ambience and cuisine are legitimate attractions and sources of pleasure which generates emotions and experiences, hopefully pleasant ones, that they are supposed to be having while on holiday. It must be said however, such pleasure does not always have an enduring effect and that it does diminish over time. Also, while tourists often dine out in search of new taste and culinary experiences, they also encounter disappointment from time to time: an eatery that is a parody of the destination’s image, or what Finkelstein (1989) calls the “manufactured images.” Nevertheless, the review of current literature suggests that a number of tourist destinations are very sought-after because of their unique gastronomy. For these destinations, gastronomy is a central feature of the tourist attraction. Lifestyle and travel media also vigorously promote gastronomy, for example, magazines such as the “Epicure” and “Australian Gourmet Traveller.” Therefore, it is plausible to suggest that the relationship between gastronomy and that of the destination is symbiotic because the destination provides the food, recipes, chefs, and the cultural backdrop that makes gastronomy an ideal product for tourist consumption. In simple terms, gastronomy is an inextricable part the holiday experience.
Based on Cohen’s (1984) phenomenological categorisation of tourist lifestyles, Hjalager (2003) offers a phenomenological model of culinary tourism experiences. The model of gastronomy-tourism lifestyles depicts tourist attitudes and preferences for food and eating according to four categorisations: (1) recreational; (2) existential; (3) diversionary; and (4) experimental gastronomy tourists. The following section discusses the gastronomy tourism experience in the context of Hjalager’s model and highlights the variations in the tourists’ food-related behaviour. The existential gastronomy tourists seek food combinations and eating
experiences that foster learning (about gastronomy). For these tourists food consumption and drinking does not only satisfy hunger and thirst; importantly for them, such consumption means gaining in-depth knowledge about the local or regional cuisine and of the destination’s culture.
The existential gastronomy tourists are unlikely to be found in typical tourist-restaurants or crowded chain or popular restaurants. For these tourists, the holiday’s success is measured by that special restaurant “where only the locals eat.” These tourists actively seek simple and
unsophisticated peasant food which is prepared with care and respect to tradition; for example, Portugal offers some great gastronomy retreats which attract the existential gastronomy tourist. The existentialist culinary tourists avoid expensive restaurants, not only because of the price, but
also because of the extravagant décor and service which is often offered in these establishments, that according to Finkelstein (1989), is a manufactured dining-out environment.
The existential gastronomy tourist will actively seek and visit working farms, participate in cooking classes, and harvesting of fruits, vegetables and wines; they will visit cheese and wine makers, and go fishing with professional fishermen. They are especially prone to sampling and buying the produce to take home with them. The Internet and specialised travel literature are the main sources of knowledge about gastronomy opportunities; the existentialist gastronomy tourists pay little attention to travel-agency adverts and the claims made in destination brochures.
Richards (2003:11) eloquently suggested that “food organises the tourists’ day. [This is because] a large proportion of most tourist experiences are spent either consuming food and drink, or deciding what and where to consume. However, many of these experiences are taken for granted, because we often regard eating as a necessity rather than a leisure activity.” Given that virtually all tourists dine out when travelling and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food, culture (though food), and people, the question arises does the destination’s
offer of gastronomy have the potential to generate tourism demand in and of itself? And if so, what factors uniquely describe the unique market segment?
Unit-II
2 Food Culture
As a food culture, it provides a medium for the expression of local culture. Food culture is presented through food related events, these events provide the opportunity to regional people to express the regional food and that is increasing in recent year (Getz, 1997). As such food is the base to build the image of the destination and also stimulates the local economy through local food purchased by tourist (Richards, 2002). Local food also contributes to increase the sustainability of tourism, local economy, authenticity of destination and provide the healthy environment to the tourist (G. Du Rand, Heath, & Alberts, 2003). If regional people encourage the tourist to participation in regional food it also enhances the destination experience (Renko, Renko, & Polonijo, 2010).
Eagan, (2013) analyse the ‘Native American’ knowledge of foods heritage and examined the effect of food access on ‘Native American’ identity and health. He used the participant observation and interviews for data collection and his analysis also focus on role of food heritage and explore the influencing factor (economic, social, environmental, and political) on diet. He found the change of concept in food related identity between all racial communities. Through this research he also shares the food heritage recipe and as a way to perceives heritage identity and knowledge.
This may mean that while food heritage, from a narrow perspective where taste and variety are concerned, other aspects both tangible, i.e. built environment, and intangible, i.e. senses of community and place, may be lost. Therefore, reflects the essentially contested nature of much heritage, whether it be industrial heritage or a tomato, and how it can be used by different sets of stakeholders for their own means. The reification of food to a form of cultural capital nevertheless creates a range of issues for the conservation of food heritage. Farmers’ markets do provide great opportunities for enlivening heritage spaces and may in themselves be heritage attractions and integral to their community’s sense of place. The challenge for markets, though, is to be able to retain such linkages so that they remain lived heritage rather than a stage show for the tourists to come look at the locals and what they think they eat.
2.1 Food and Language
Sanskrit language in north, Dravidian in south and third group of language spoken by Mundas or Austrics in the state of West Bengal, Bihar, Tripura, Orissa and Madhya Pardesh of these three groups of language found in India. These languages provide interesting clues of food materials or origin of food. In Sanskrit word also found the foreign flavor and frequently traced in early Munda inheritance. Eleusine coracana cereals commonly called as ragi and ragi word drived from Sanskrit word red. Even pulses word also originated from Sanskrit word masha (math), masura (masoor) and mudga (mung) and common name of tuber have an aborigine name of aluka (serval edible dioscora species). Current Fruit name also shows the linkage with ancient name of fruit for e.g. kadali for banana, jambula for jamoon numbuka for lime (nimbu), nagaranga for orange and jambu for rose apple. Indeed, the oil word derived from Sanskrit word ennai and thaila (Sanskrit word) for sesame seed oil. Pulao or pilav or pallao (rice dish) term created by Arabic and Persian but these words also found in Sanskrit (in Yagnavalkya Smriti) and Tamil language. Some word also absorbed from Chinese language for e.g. peach was chinani and camphor is chinakarpura. The evidence shows that about 627 AD a Chinese emperor send the delegation to Harsa Emperor for learning the techniques of crystal sugar making. Word of Gud or Jaggery (brown sugar), Khand (rock sugar) and Sharkara (crystal sugar) known in early date (sutra literature from 800 BC). Whatever be case of food word or language also showcase the clues to food history or movement and adaptation of culture have come in later historical periods.
2.2 Food in Indus Valley
The origins of food heritage can be traced way back in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro civilization in India and Dravidians of civilization were urban. In this civilization, it was found that many grains or granaries store and kitchen tool was the foundation of Indian food. The great Indus Valley civilization found in northwest and north of india. In this civilization found six-rowed hulled barely and four varieties of wheat with small grinding stone. Date (fruit), Ber fruit and wild animals (goat, sheep and wild buffalo) also used as a food in 5000 BC. After 4,000 BC large settlements of human with new variety of barley, cereal, wheat, oat and wine grapes found with storage of jars. Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Banawali place of Harappa yielded the various wheat and barley, and it also staple food. Barley was cultivated in Daimabad (Maharashtra), and Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh) Harappan site (Possehl, 1982). Rice seeds imprints found in Rangpur, Saharanpur (Uttar Pardesh) and Lothal (Gujarat). Charred Grains (Setaria Species) imprints showed up at Surkotada (Kutch) in wild form and Sorghum species were found at Nageshwar (Dwarka). Even now in northwest india, the choice of cereals and pulses was quite wide due to agro-climate condition. Peas and chana (chickpea) were found in Kalibangan and Daimabad (Harappa site). Masoor dal found in early phase, but moong dal and horse gram were found in later phase. Sesame and rai (oilseeds) was found at two meters depth in Chanhudaro (Achaya, 1994, 2009).
2.3 Potential of Food Heritage in India
In early phase of the stone age (pre-ancient era), human used to eat fruit as the main dietary food item, but after passing time, human start to search the animals, killed and start to consumed the meat as a meal. Around 10,000 BC human shift toward to vegetarian food due to dependence on hunting animals. Agricultural revolution history starts from Neolithic period (7500-6500 BC) and have been found some stone tools and used clay pot for storage of grain. When fire came into existence, first cooking method roasting used by human and later boiling was used. In metal age (3000 BC) human change his tools and start cultivating and growing food. In India, ancient era (2500 BC-350 AD) begins from Indus valley civilization, in which Banawali, Naurangabad, Mitathal, Kunal, Rakhi Garhi, Agroha and Rukhi shows the evidence of culture in Haryana. Pulses (chana, begal gram) and cereals (wheat, barley) found the evidence in this period. Many kitchen tools and equipment (clay oven, chulhas, tawa, plate, cup, ladles, pots, pan) also found in Harappan site. The holistic approach of ayurvedic cooking foundation derived from nature and balanced in this era. Grain history depended on geographic condition and spread of root in the world. The large population found in the latitudes between 40° north and the equator in 2000–1000 B.C. Grain Cuisine (wheat and barley) spread root with arrows mark the probable movement of this cuisine had spread widely from their origins. In below map shows the grain cuisine with spread root.
Exhibit No. 2.4
The spread of root and grain cuisines by 2000–1000 B.C.E
Source: (Laudan, 2013)
The root of Hinduism of Aryans in north and Dravidians in south part of india was shaped largely vegetarian. The culture of Aryans documented or described in four Vedas (1700 BC to 800 BC). The oldest Rigveda (1700 BC-1500 BC) describes the barley as the staple diet and as a mark of hospitality ‘madhuparaka’ a special drink was served to the guest. The animals were kept as the rearing milk and milk product were used. The Yajurveda (1500 BC to 800 BC) mentions that wheat, rice and barley was the staple diet and sesame oilseeds, pulses, spices and vegetables (pumpkin, gourds) was cultivated in this period. Sugar cane has been described in Atharveda. Somras (alcoholic beverage) was used in rituals activity and fruit juice was used as a refreshing drink. In Medieval era (350 Ad to 1450 AD), two religious group Buddhism and Jainism influence on the cuisine of India.
In Mauryan Empire in 260 BC, the Buddhist cuisine emphasized on boiled rice, sugar, and ghee and shunned meat and alcohol and expanded in North Africa, and Europe in first to third century and fifth to seventh century Buddhism Cuisine were adopted by the Kushan Empire, different kingdoms in China, Korea and Japan. The slow expansion found in eleventh century and still shapes cuisines in Tibet, Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Sri Lanka.
Exhibit No 2.5
Expansion of Buddhist cuisine across Asia, 300 BC-1000 BC
Source: (Laudan, 2013)
Jains were strong believes in vegetarian food and cooked without onion and garlic. In Golden age of india, several travelers visit during this time and influence on cuisine.
Mughal Period and Food
Mughal period start from 1526 AD and Babur were shared meal with women (in Baburnama mentions having dined with his sister, Khadija Begam) (Beveridge, 1530). Hindus didn’t eat meat and mostly used the whole-wheat breads and barley. During this period farmers planted the crops of wheat in the dryer regions and rice in the wetter areas, and grew cotton, sugar, poppy, and hemp for the market. Chironji (oily nuts), orange, lime, citron, santhra, galgal, amritphal, amal bid and hambiri lime food items listed in this time. “Humayun (Babar Son) was consumed during campaigning to recover his throne, but after throne he deciding that beef not a food fit for the devout”(Achaya, 1994).
According to Abū al-Fazl, advisor to Akbar and six large kitchen tents were part of Akbar’s train and he brought in cooks (from Islamic world) to work in the kitchens. Akbar was consumed meat only seasonally basis (first day of every solar month and during month of march). In his kitchen varieties of rich veg and non-veg food prepared in royal kitchen. In Ain-i-Akbari book, food was classified in three categories, first was veg dishes (in which cereals, dal, vegetable and sherbet included), in second categories dishes was made veg and non-veg ingredients (like biryani, Haleem, haesla, qutab, shulla etc.) and in third class consist of meat cooked with spice or gravy (like yakni, malghuba, qaliya etc.)(Achaya, 2009).
In Ain-i-Akbari mention that water melon, peaches, almond, pomegranates, pistachios and grapes found everywhere (Jarrett, 1891). In that period of time Hindu dishes were Kichiree, halwa, kheer and fingers were used for consumed the food. The Mughals used ghee, wheat rice, dal, chicken, mutton, flour for bread and various spices which trades form silk root (Mughal trades roots shown in the blow map) (Laudan, 2013).
Exhibit No 2.6
Sixteenth-century trade routes and Mughal cuisines
2.3.1 Food Heritage in India
History of earth, started from 300 million years back and believed that it has consisted of one large land mass, over period of time broke up into fragments (Dikshitar, 1951; Sneddon, 1997). These Gondwana land further fragmented in 10 million year ago to India, Africa, Antarctica and Australia. In hominid phase, fruit main dietary item has been considered, thereafter meat began to enter the meal of Homo-stabilis. In 1.8 million years ago, crude tools have begun to use for purpose of accumulations of animal bones and human improved the hunting skills. After 10,000 BC, dependence on animal food has been changed and consumption of meat was decline in next few millennia, human was started to farming and vegetable food start to consumed (Eaton & Konner, 1985).
Food and cultural Heritage of India is mixture of diversity and influence on heritage over the period of time. Indian culture roots, primarily introduced around the Hindu intuitions, including strict cast system with dietary prohibited and term cast was used in 16th centuries which denoting the race or breed of family. The authentic cast systems developed by Aryans in 3000 year ago (Khosla, 2007) and society divided into basic caste system on the basic of nature of work. In Manu Smriti (200 BC) it is also written about division of society in four classes: i.e. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisys and Sudras. Aryan are in found India, Persia and Europe, Swastika and Om (a good luck symbol of aryan) symbol of aryan culture is still used in India. The concept of Ayurveda was also developed by Aryans (Khosla, 2007). According to Vedas, the elements of food has been described way back 6000 years ago are still present in our Indian food. This include milk, ghee, curd, leafy green vegetable, wheat and dhania (paddy and other grain). Madhuparaka a ritual beverage made with ghee, milk, curd, honey and sugar served to guest in Vedic periods. So, “Food is a nation’s identity, sprit of civilization and cuisine are governed by taste. Taste , in turn, reflects the intrinsic temperament and acquired preferences.” (Pant & Parti, 2007). Vedas also mention that, “Food should be prepared in time with proper quality, taste, purity and feeling”. So that, Indian cuisine also tells the story of society with fascinating manner; it also narrates the history of decline and flow of trend of the history dictated by traders or human.
During Aryan period, creation and development of Indian food through various aspects was a key factor. After that food or cuisine was influenced by many conquests (Mongolians, Parisians, Turks, Greeks, Chinese, Arabs, Portuguese and British) and other culture (Jain, Buddha, Sikh etc.). Different regions or sub-continent interacted to each other over the centuries and influenced each other’s foods (welcoming novel cooking techniques, ingredients and food culture brought by other regions).
Indian food also depends on geographical conditions, soil, climate, flora-fauna and social circumstance. So that food said to be indigenous. In 2nd century B.C the great impact on Indian cuisine was by the Ashoka Emperor for popularization of vegetarian food. In that time Mahavira and Buddha also played a vital role in vegetarian food and historically practiced vegetarianism food. Vegetarianism is one of the common practices of eating food in india. Many Hindu go for vegetarian food because they think that it is only pious. Fasting also amongst common practices amongst people because they belief that it improves health and best for family wellness. According to ancient Hindu food beliefs, food eaten was selected on the basis of four main seasons.
Exhibit No. 2.7
Food preferred and avoided according to season
(source: Singh, 2015)
In ancient time, medicine system of Ayurveda (5000 BC and historical roots in India) was developed and still practiced in modern times. The ayurvedic concept of food; satvik (stay healthy), rajasik (To develop heroic tendencies) and tamasik (denote dark) food also matched with three different personality of spiritual human. The concept of six ‘Rasa’ (taste), namely sweet, salty, sour, bitter, pungent and astringent were related to six seasons and used as for prevent deficiency disorders. These taste (six taste) also have intrinsic properties of these three (vata, pitta, kapha) humors of Ayurveda and related to natural specific combination of five element (space, earth, fire and air) (Lurie, 2014)
Exhibit No 2.8
Panchabhautic composition and Tridoshic relation of features may help in planning a diet
Source: (Lurie, 2014)
Ayurveda also provide some reasonable explanations about the role of food and special emphasis on Ahar (diet) to insuring health. In this context, ayurvedic food plays a significant role not only how to treat disease but also how to prevent. According to Ayurveda, specific diets and food are recommended based on an individual’s health status because the food is a powerful clinical tool that aids in preventing and treating disease. It also refers the specific spice according to season, principal of ahara vidi, mode and method of eating, types of incompatibility (virudha) of food, dietary guideline and concept of dinning, fundamental qualities of cook food (Nishtapaka), convalescent (pathya) food and food consumption approach (Lurie, 2014). These all recommended Ahar still have a part of food heritage.
A country like India is blessed with a rich food heritage ranging from Starters to Main Course and Desserts including Beverages. Over the years, India has emerged as a favored destination for the tourism, hospitality and Food Lovers. Various hotel groups both national and international are investing into the Indian hotel and Food Industry, with the boom in economy and elevated life standards India is the market for multinational companies. Even foreign eateries are offering customized delicate with Indian twist. Now food tourists are patronizing India as well. However, Indian food heritage has been to a great extent passed on as an art from generations to others. Although some documentation in terms of food heritage is documented in Indian History which is dedicated to the Royal Palaces and Highness Culinary delights. The modern cookery has been documented by Thangam E Phillip and Modern India chefs, Culinary Writers like Manjit Gill, Sanjeev Kapoor, Rakesh Sethi, Sudhir Sibbal, Krishna Arora and others have showcased the Indian culinary heritage via books, media, television shows and websites. Yet much is needed to be done in this sector. Indian food has a close relation with culture and tradition of the country and its vary region to region.
2.3.1.1. Regional Food Heritage
Broadly Indian regional food divided in four sections on the basis of directions like north, south, east and west. Indian cuisine also represents the seasonal food availability, local taste and community’s custom. So Indian food is also segregated on the basis of geographic similarities like cuisine of Himalayan valley range (Jamu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh), cuisine of konkan coast (Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka), Cuisine of Thar Desert (Rajasthan), cuisine of the Deccan Plateau (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala), Cuisine of Gangetic Plains (Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha), cuisine of North India and cuisine of West India. Each of them has unique characteristics and varied heritage and now we discuss about each state of cuisine.
Unit- III
Food Heritage and Tourism
Taste trails, culinary routes, food trails or wine routes all refer to touring circuits that cater to residents who appreciate their comestible heritage, to recreational foodies or to other tourists who are interested in food heritage
3.1 Food and Tourism
Food is a spirit of a civilization and nation’s identity. The national identity of the people is defined as much as by their local food and costume, language and literature, arts and artefacts. Local food is governed by taste, as a taste reflects the intrinsic temperament and acquired preferences. The preference of taste also attracts to people for travelling one place to another place, so it’s an essential source of tourism. In today’s scenario more tourist is travelling for the purpose of food-related reason (C Michael Hall & Sharples, 2003; Long, 2004a). Through local food tourist has recognised the importance of food and it influence on generating satisfaction and destination experience (Erik Wolf, 2006). Due to biological need of human, tourist must eat and play an important role as an attribute of destination. As attributable of food, a tourist spends more than 25% of tourism expenditure (Correia, Moital, Da Costa, & Peres, 2008).
The studies of food are the intra-disciplinary and multi-disciplinary area and it is also a part of culture. So that food studies start from food production (Agriculture, hunting, fishing, natural food resources), food supply (distribution), Food manufacturing or processing, Food security, food policy, food service and food experiences. (Colin Michael Hall, Gossling, Michael Hall, & Gossling, 2013) found the many challenges which are associated with food production and service in the context of sustainable culinary system. In Getz, Robinson, Vujicic, & Andersson, (2014) highlight the food tourism linkage with hospitality studies, tourism studies and food studies. Many study shows the relationship between Food and Tourism. The following exhibits hows the relationship between dimensions of food and tourism.
Exhibit No 2.2
Relationship between dimensions of food and tourism
Above studies indicate that varieties or form or dimensions of tourism that exist around the food either as primary or secondary motivation. Now some certain element of food and tourism are discussed as under.
3.1.1 Food Tourism
Many studies highlighted that food is a main component or has a strong effect on revisit, repurchasing local product, re-use the service for future intention on the basis of satisfaction and perceived values (Barsky & Labagh, 1992; Choi & Chu, 2001; Petrick & Backman, 2002; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Food Tourism is defined as “Visiting food exhibition, specific food restaurants, food festivals and food related events or specific location for which food tasting and experiencing are the primary reason for travel” (C. Michael Hall & Page, 2000; C Michael Hall & Sharples, 2003). Colin Michael Hall, (2003) highlights the different form of tourism on the basis of motivation or special interest in food (Food related experience and participation) Food, culinary, gastronomic and gourmet tourism are frequently used terms in food tourism (Boniface, 2003; Colin Michael Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis, & Cambourne, 2003a; Long, 2004a)
Exhibit 2.3
Different forms of Food Tourism on the basis of special interest or motivation
Source: Hall, (2003)
Here tasting regional and authentic dishes also the types of tourism in which food play a vital role in the industry and academician, traveller and communities pay more attention on it (Colin Michael Hall et al., 2003a; Quan & Wang, 2004). Quan & Wang, (2004) identify that food related event is one source of enhance the regional communities and during travelling tourist spent one third of the total budget of trip. These events build the regional loyalty for attracting the more tourist and increase the local economy sector (Yuan, Morrison, Linton, Feng, & Jeon, 2004).
Local food may be a close relationship with tourism experience (Clark & Chabrel, 2007). Sims, (2009) conducted a study on association benefits of offering local food experience to visitor boost the sustainability of rural regions. During travelling, the appreciation of local food is a significant motivation factor for food tourist and some other pull factor are food history, food tradition and culture, rural territory and traditional dishes (Mason & Paggiaro, 2009). For motivation of tourist also differ as comparison to general event and food related event, due to personal traits of traveller in food event and food consuming experience also differ (Kim, Choi, Agrusa, Wang, & Kim, 2010). UNWTO report on food Tourism (2012) highlights the importance and recommendation of food tourism as a growing segment of tourism. UNWTO affiliate member described the association between food and tourism and also provides insight into traditional economy sector of tourism. Hence, Rural communities get opportunities, generate income and provide the job in local food related industry (agriculture, local chef, local food provider etc.) through food tourism. So, food is deeply connected with regional destination and these destinations should focus on marketing the local unique food identity for purpose of attracting food tourist.
Another definition of food tourism is “Travel for the specific purpose of enjoying food experience” (Getz & Robinson, 2014). Food Tourism is also associated with impact on various dimensions and source of tourism (e.g. tourism suppliers, destination, culture etc.). Indeed, food tourism also have great potential or opportunities for export of the regional food to visitor’s place.
3.2.2 Gourmet, Gastronomy and Cuisine Tourism
Gastronomy is the study between food and culture or the art and knowledge involved in preparing and eating good food (Hornby, Ashby, & Wehmeier, 2000). Gastronomy is divided into four main areas, which are practical gastronomy, theoretical gastronomy, technical gastronomy and food gastronomy. Delights means something that gives you great pleasure or satisfaction. So that Gastronomy delights means sensory experiences of food that satisfy to person in taste, texture, appearance, temperature and shape. Gourmet, gastronomic and cuisine tourism are frequently used as a primary motivation or high interest in food related activity in food tourism (D. Hall, 2005). In gastronomy, food is a key component and ability to express the culture and heritage identities through community’s authenticity experience. Kivela & Crotts, (2006) found the gastronomy link to destination and destination link as a tool for marketing in Hong Kong tourism and these segments are part of tourist experience. Grimod de La Reyniere with Almanach des Gourmands (1803-1812) concluded that gastronomy has a relationship between food and culture and component of culture, in which also include all aspect of food (tasting, food writing, food discovering). C Michael Hall & Sharples, (2008) also asserted that visiting the specific food event, restaurant, winery and participating in food related activity as a primary motivation of tourist called as gastronomy tourism. Indeed, Gourmet mean “A person who enjoys and knows a lot about good food and wine” and gastronomy means “The art of activity of cooking and eating fine food” (Getz et al., 2014).
3.2.3 Culinary Tourism
The Food as a motivation of travel also impact on tourist behaviour during eating and drinking (Murcott, 1986). Cultural tourist is primarily interested in learning or experiencing the local culture and product of a particular destination as well as sources of pleasure local food experience has included in the culinary tourism (Richards, 1996). Culinary tourist is also a part of cultural tourist. In growth of tourism, culture component plays a vital role (Kim, 1998) Culinary Tourism is defined as the art of experiencing the other culture through food, which include all process of food items (preparation, presentation and consumption of food) and culinary tourism developed in 1998 (Long, 1998) and also include physical, social, cultural, economic, spiritual and aesthetic places (Long, 2004a). E Wolf, (2002) define culinary tourism as, “travel in order to search for and enjoy prepared food and drink and unique and memorable gastronomic experiences” or “any tourism experience in which one learns about, appreciates, or consumes branded local culinary resources” (Smith & Xiao, 2008). In tourism industry, culinary tourism is an important segment of area which has been less consider by the researcher (A.-M. Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000) and associated with travellers interest (Getz & Brown, 2006).
. In culinary tourism, activity and interest in food by watching live cooking show, dining out, spend in time in cooking and pursue as a leisure experience of culinary practices or food culture practiced by culinary tourist (Sharples, 2003). A survey of special interest tour on internet mentions that they are conducting culinary tours and culinary tours are roughly classified in to three categories. These are: 1) Cooking experience tour 2) Local food dining Tour and 3) Visiting specific food producers for e.g. tea plantation tour, chocolates tour etc. Culinary tourism successful case studies (Boniface, 2003; Colin Michael Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis, & Cambourne, 2003b; A. Hjalager & Richards, 2002; Telfer & Hashimoto, 2003) and ethnographies (Long, 2004b) have been used as a destination strategy. Global report of UNWTO (United Nation World Tourism Organization) 2012 highlights that expenditure of tourist in dining restaurant is a second largest expenditure and main attraction of destination during travel. Tourist gastronomy activity of destination considered as a part of culinary tourism and also reported the “nearly 100% of tourists dine out while travelling, and food and beverage consistently rank first in visitor spending” (Erik Wolf, 2006).
3.2.4 Rural and Urban Tourism
Rural tourism defined as a tourist activity based on rural attractions and other rural resources. It is believed that can improve life style of rural people (S. Gao, 2007). It also helps to preserve the cultural heritage of rural communities and rural development in China. It is used for protection and development of traditional craftmanship and intangible cultural heritage (Shunli Gao et al., 2009). In broad, rural tourism includes the all activities in rural areas (art, heritage, adventure, farms, nature and culture) in which tourists participate or experience the activity or service, that provide the strength to rural economy and development, and protect the culture of rural area. Rural tourism has the capacity of offering unique culture for attracting the tourist or major serve as motivation factor.
In India, the scheme of rural tourism in 2002-03 started by tourism department aims to showcase heritage, culture, art, rural lifestyle, landscape and various rural destination for purpose of providing the strength to economically, socially and environmentally of local people. Ministry of Tourism Govt. of India in Feb 2011, introduced the 169 rural tourism sites in India and under heritage categories, Rural Tourism project in Hodka village in Gujarat won the PATA (Pacific Asia Travel Association) award in 2010. In modern days, it is a complex of economy, history and environment pattern represented through rural tourism and it have rich local feature. Small scale rural tourism is facing the product and structural problems such as lack of knowledge in demand factor, lack of skill in product, limited knowledge of working market and marketing network (Jenkins & Parrott, 1997)
Inter-relation between local identity, migrants, place, cultural diversity and tourism in different ways of relation area are often neglected by researchers (Colin Michael Hall & Page, 2003). Urban tourism is not only collection of tourist facilities but also consumption of experience, identity, heritage, pleasure and intangible cultural (Featherstone, 1993; Kearns & Philo, 1993; Selby, 2003). In past decade of South Africa people migrated to urban areas due to leisure consumption and its reveal about expanding cities. Urban tourism has important implication as a component of geographies and economic of these cities. So that urban tourism sector is a complex interaction between regional identities and process of globalization (Rath, 2007). Today without immigrants, it is hard to imagine urban tourism because they provide constantly reasonable labour and cultural expressions used as a product of urban tourism, in which heritage plays a significant role in constriction of place and culture (Middleton, 2007).
Srikanth & Prasad, (2016) find that Indian cities must work in these seven priority areas: 1. Governance and urban planning 2. Promotion and marketing of urban area 3. Human resource for urban development 4. Protection of cultural and natural heritage 5. Offer travel technology 6. Develop the tourism product 7. Provide excellent travel experience. Nation urban development policy also impact on tourism and provide a product to meet expectations of visitors, in which living condition and infrastructure provide a condition to residents.
3.2 Food as a tool for promoting tourism destination
Food can be used become a powerful tool for creating the brand of destination and many country (Australia, Canada, Singapore etc.) has developed the regional cuisine as a new tourism product (Telfer & Hashimoto, 2003). Many research also suggested to use of food as a marketing and branding of tourism destination (Boyne & Hall, 2004; G. E. du Rand & Heath, 2006; Frochot, 2003; Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006). Lin, Pearson, & Cai, (2011) investigated the food as a tool to promotion of tourist destination in Taiwan and suggested the seven food dimensions of identity can adequately reflect the specific feature of destination.
2.3 Potential of Food Heritage in India
In early phase of the stone age (pre-ancient era), human used to eat fruit as the main dietary food item, but after passing time, human start to search the animals, killed and start to consumed the meat as a meal. Around 10,000 BC human shift toward to vegetarian food due to dependence on hunting animals. Agricultural revolution history starts from Neolithic period (7500-6500 BC) and have been found some stone tools and used clay pot for storage of grain. When fire came into existence, first cooking method roasting used by human and later boiling was used. In metal age (3000 BC) human change his tools and start cultivating and growing food. In India, ancient era (2500 BC-350 AD) begins from Indus valley civilization, in which Banawali, Naurangabad, Mitathal, Kunal, Rakhi Garhi, Agroha and Rukhi shows the evidence of culture in Haryana. Pulses (chana, begal gram) and cereals (wheat, barley) found the evidence in this period. Many kitchen tools and equipment (clay oven, chulhas, tawa, plate, cup, ladles, pots, pan) also found in Harappan site. The holistic approach of ayurvedic cooking foundation derived from nature and balanced in this era. Grain history depended on geographic condition and spread of root in the world. The large population found in the latitudes between 40° north and the equator in 2000–1000 B.C. Grain Cuisine (wheat and barley) spread root with arrows mark the probable movement of this cuisine had spread widely from their origins. In below map shows the grain cuisine with spread root.
Exhibit No. 2.4
The spread of root and grain cuisines by 2000–1000 B.C.E
Source: (Laudan, 2013)
The root of Hinduism of Aryans in north and Dravidians in south part of india was shaped largely vegetarian. The culture of Aryans documented or described in four Vedas (1700 BC to 800 BC). The oldest Rigveda (1700 BC-1500 BC) describes the barley as the staple diet and as a mark of hospitality ‘madhuparaka’ a special drink was served to the guest. The animals were kept as the rearing milk and milk product were used. The Yajurveda (1500 BC to 800 BC) mentions that wheat, rice and barley was the staple diet and sesame oilseeds, pulses, spices and vegetables (pumpkin, gourds) was cultivated in this period. Sugar cane has been described in Atharveda. Somras (alcoholic beverage) was used in rituals activity and fruit juice was used as a refreshing drink. In Medieval era (350 Ad to 1450 AD), two religious group Buddhism and Jainism influence on the cuisine of India.
In Mauryan Empire in 260 BC, the Buddhist cuisine emphasized on boiled rice, sugar, and ghee and shunned meat and alcohol and expanded in North Africa, and Europe in first to third century and fifth to seventh century Buddhism Cuisine were adopted by the Kushan Empire, different kingdoms in China, Korea and Japan. The slow expansion found in eleventh century and still shapes cuisines in Tibet, Southeast Asia, China, Japan, and Sri Lanka.
Exhibit No 2.5
Expansion of Buddhist cuisine across Asia, 300 BC-1000 BC
Source: (Laudan, 2013)
Jains were strong believes in vegetarian food and cooked without onion and garlic. In Golden age of india, several travelers visit during this time and influence on cuisine.
Mughal Period and Food
Mughal period start from 1526 AD and Babur were shared meal with women (in Baburnama mentions having dined with his sister, Khadija Begam) (Beveridge, 1530). Hindus didn’t eat meat and mostly used the whole-wheat breads and barley. During this period farmers planted the crops of wheat in the dryer regions and rice in the wetter areas, and grew cotton, sugar, poppy, and hemp for the market. Chironji (oily nuts), orange, lime, citron, santhra, galgal, amritphal, amal bid and hambiri lime food items listed in this time. “Humayun (Babar Son) was consumed during campaigning to recover his throne, but after throne he deciding that beef not a food fit for the devout”(Achaya, 1994).
According to Abū al-Fazl, advisor to Akbar and six large kitchen tents were part of Akbar’s train and he brought in cooks (from Islamic world) to work in the kitchens. Akbar was consumed meat only seasonally basis (first day of every solar month and during month of march). In his kitchen varieties of rich veg and non-veg food prepared in royal kitchen. In Ain-i-Akbari book, food was classified in three categories, first was veg dishes (in which cereals, dal, vegetable and sherbet included), in second categories dishes was made veg and non-veg ingredients (like biryani, Haleem, haesla, qutab, shulla etc.) and in third class consist of meat cooked with spice or gravy (like yakni, malghuba, qaliya etc.)(Achaya, 2009).
In Ain-i-Akbari mention that water melon, peaches, almond, pomegranates, pistachios and grapes found everywhere (Jarrett, 1891). In that period of time Hindu dishes were Kichiree, halwa, kheer and fingers were used for consumed the food. The Mughals used ghee, wheat rice, dal, chicken, mutton, flour for bread and various spices which trades form silk root (Mughal trades roots shown in the blow map) (Laudan, 2013).
Exhibit No 2.6
Sixteenth-century trade routes and Mughal cuisines
Food and Language
Sanskrit language in north, Dravidian in south and third group of language spoken by Mundas or Austrics in the state of West Bengal, Bihar, Tripura, Orissa and Madhya Pardesh of these three groups of language found in India. These languages provide interesting clues of food materials or origin of food. In Sanskrit word also found the foreign flavor and frequently traced in early Munda inheritance. Eleusine coracana cereals commonly called as ragi and ragi word drived from Sanskrit word red. Even pulses word also originated from Sanskrit word masha (math), masura (masoor) and mudga (mung) and common name of tuber have an aborigine name of aluka (serval edible dioscora species). Current Fruit name also shows the linkage with ancient name of fruit for e.g. kadali for banana, jambula for jamoon numbuka for lime (nimbu), nagaranga for orange and jambu for rose apple. Indeed, the oil word derived from Sanskrit word ennai and thaila (Sanskrit word) for sesame seed oil. Pulao or pilav or pallao (rice dish) term created by Arabic and Persian but these words also found in Sanskrit (in Yagnavalkya Smriti) and Tamil language. Some word also absorbed from Chinese language for e.g. peach was chinani and camphor is chinakarpura. The evidence shows that about 627 AD a Chinese emperor send the delegation to Harsa Emperor for learning the techniques of crystal sugar making. Word of Gud or Jaggery (brown sugar), Khand (rock sugar) and Sharkara (crystal sugar) known in early date (sutra literature from 800 BC). Whatever be case of food word or language also showcase the clues to food history or movement and adaptation of culture have come in later historical periods.
Food in Indus Valley
The origins of food heritage can be traced way back in Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro civilization in India and Dravidians of civilization were urban. In this civilization, it was found that many grains or granaries store and kitchen tool was the foundation of Indian food. The great Indus Valley civilization found in northwest and north of india. In this civilization found six-rowed hulled barely and four varieties of wheat with small grinding stone. Date (fruit), Ber fruit and wild animals (goat, sheep and wild buffalo) also used as a food in 5000 BC. After 4,000 BC large settlements of human with new variety of barley, cereal, wheat, oat and wine grapes found with storage of jars. Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and Banawali place of Harappa yielded the various wheat and barley, and it also staple food. Barley was cultivated in Daimabad (Maharashtra), and Atranjikhera (Uttar Pradesh) Harappan site (Possehl, 1982). Rice seeds imprints found in Rangpur, Saharanpur (Uttar Pardesh) and Lothal (Gujarat). Charred Grains (Setaria Species) imprints showed up at Surkotada (Kutch) in wild form and Sorghum species were found at Nageshwar (Dwarka). Even now in northwest india, the choice of cereals and pulses was quite wide due to agro-climate condition. Peas and chana (chickpea) were found in Kalibangan and Daimabad (Harappa site). Masoor dal found in early phase, but moong dal and horse gram were found in later phase. Sesame and rai (oilseeds) was found at two meters depth in Chanhudaro (Achaya, 1994, 2009).
2.3.1 Food Heritage in India
History of earth, started from 300 million years back and believed that it has consisted of one large land mass, over period of time broke up into fragments (Dikshitar, 1951; Sneddon, 1997). These Gondwana land further fragmented in 10 million year ago to India, Africa, Antarctica and Australia. In hominid phase, fruit main dietary item has been considered, thereafter meat began to enter the meal of Homo-stabilis. In 1.8 million years ago, crude tools have begun to use for purpose of accumulations of animal bones and human improved the hunting skills. After 10,000 BC, dependence on animal food has been changed and consumption of meat was decline in next few millennia, human was started to farming and vegetable food start to consumed (Eaton & Konner, 1985).
Food and cultural Heritage of India is mixture of diversity and influence on heritage over the period of time. Indian culture roots, primarily introduced around the Hindu intuitions, including strict cast system with dietary prohibited and term cast was used in 16th centuries which denoting the race or breed of family. The authentic cast systems developed by Aryans in 3000 year ago (Khosla, 2007) and society divided into basic caste system on the basic of nature of work. In Manu Smriti (200 BC) it is also written about division of society in four classes: i.e. Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaisys and Sudras. Aryan are in found India, Persia and Europe, Swastika and Om (a good luck symbol of aryan) symbol of aryan culture is still used in India. The concept of Ayurveda was also developed by Aryans (Khosla, 2007). According to Vedas, the elements of food has been described way back 6000 years ago are still present in our Indian food. This include milk, ghee, curd, leafy green vegetable, wheat and dhania (paddy and other grain). Madhuparaka a ritual beverage made with ghee, milk, curd, honey and sugar served to guest in Vedic periods. So, “Food is a nation’s identity, sprit of civilization and cuisine are governed by taste. Taste , in turn, reflects the intrinsic temperament and acquired preferences.” (Pant & Parti, 2007). Vedas also mention that, “Food should be prepared in time with proper quality, taste, purity and feeling”. So that, Indian cuisine also tells the story of society with fascinating manner; it also narrates the history of decline and flow of trend of the history dictated by traders or human.
During Aryan period, creation and development of Indian food through various aspects was a key factor. After that food or cuisine was influenced by many conquests (Mongolians, Parisians, Turks, Greeks, Chinese, Arabs, Portuguese and British) and other culture (Jain, Buddha, Sikh etc.). Different regions or sub-continent interacted to each other over the centuries and influenced each other’s foods (welcoming novel cooking techniques, ingredients and food culture brought by other regions).
Indian food also depends on geographical conditions, soil, climate, flora-fauna and social circumstance. So that food said to be indigenous. In 2nd century B.C the great impact on Indian cuisine was by the Ashoka Emperor for popularization of vegetarian food. In that time Mahavira and Buddha also played a vital role in vegetarian food and historically practiced vegetarianism food. Vegetarianism is one of the common practices of eating food in india. Many Hindu go for vegetarian food because they think that it is only pious. Fasting also amongst common practices amongst people because they belief that it improves health and best for family wellness. According to ancient Hindu food beliefs, food eaten was selected on the basis of four main seasons.
Exhibit No. 2.7
Food preferred and avoided according to season
(source: Singh, 2015)
In ancient time, medicine system of Ayurveda (5000 BC and historical roots in India) was developed and still practiced in modern times. The ayurvedic concept of food; satvik (stay healthy), rajasik (To develop heroic tendencies) and tamasik (denote dark) food also matched with three different personality of spiritual human. The concept of six ‘Rasa’ (taste), namely sweet, salty, sour, bitter, pungent and astringent were related to six seasons and used as for prevent deficiency disorders. These taste (six taste) also have intrinsic properties of these three (vata, pitta, kapha) humors of Ayurveda and related to natural specific combination of five element (space, earth, fire and air) (Lurie, 2014)
Exhibit No 2.8
Panchabhautic composition and Tridoshic relation of features may help in planning a diet
Source: (Lurie, 2014)
Ayurveda also provide some reasonable explanations about the role of food and special emphasis on Ahar (diet) to insuring health. In this context, ayurvedic food plays a significant role not only how to treat disease but also how to prevent. According to Ayurveda, specific diets and food are recommended based on an individual’s health status because the food is a powerful clinical tool that aids in preventing and treating disease. It also refers the specific spice according to season, principal of ahara vidi, mode and method of eating, types of incompatibility (virudha) of food, dietary guideline and concept of dinning, fundamental qualities of cook food (Nishtapaka), convalescent (pathya) food and food consumption approach (Lurie, 2014). These all recommended Ahar still have a part of food heritage.
A country like India is blessed with a rich food heritage ranging from Starters to Main Course and Desserts including Beverages. Over the years, India has emerged as a favored destination for the tourism, hospitality and Food Lovers. Various hotel groups both national and international are investing into the Indian hotel and Food Industry, with the boom in economy and elevated life standards India is the market for multinational companies. Even foreign eateries are offering customized delicate with Indian twist. Now food tourists are patronizing India as well. However, Indian food heritage has been to a great extent passed on as an art from generations to others. Although some documentation in terms of food heritage is documented in Indian History which is dedicated to the Royal Palaces and Highness Culinary delights. The modern cookery has been documented by Thangam E Phillip and Modern India chefs, Culinary Writers like Manjit Gill, Sanjeev Kapoor, Rakesh Sethi, Sudhir Sibbal, Krishna Arora and others have showcased the Indian culinary heritage via books, media, television shows and websites. Yet much is needed to be done in this sector. Indian food has a close relation with culture and tradition of the country and its vary region to region.
2.3.1.1. Regional Food Heritage
Broadly Indian regional food divided in four sections on the basis of directions like north, south, east and west. Indian cuisine also represents the seasonal food availability, local taste and community’s custom. So Indian food is also segregated on the basis of geographic similarities like cuisine of Himalayan valley range (Jamu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh), cuisine of konkan coast (Goa, Maharashtra and Karnataka), Cuisine of Thar Desert (Rajasthan), cuisine of the Deccan Plateau (Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala), Cuisine of Gangetic Plains (Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha), cuisine of North India and cuisine of West India. Each of them has unique characteristics and varied heritage and now we discuss about each state of cuisine.
Reference
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Gillespie, C. (2002). European Gastronomy into the 21st Century. Butterworth-Oxford: Heinemann.
Hjalager, A-M. (2002). A topology of gastronomy tourism, in A-M. Hjalager and G. Richards (eds.). Tourism Gastronomy. London: Routledge.
